Motor Nos

Analysis of the operation of different Stepping Motor Control

This section covers all types of engines, from elementary circuits needed to control a variable reluctance motor, the H-bridge circuit necessary to control a bipolar permanent magnet motor. Each class of drive circuit is illustrated with practical examples, but these examples are not intended as an exhaustive catalog of the control circuits commercially available, nor the information provided here is intended to replace the information contained the component manufacturer's data sheets for the parts mentioned.

This section is only the most basic control circuit for each class of engine. All these circuits assume that the motor power supply provides a voltage not exceeding the rated voltage to drive the motor, and thus greatly reducing engine performance. Section Next, the current drive circuits limited covers practical circuits drive high performance.

Variable reluctance motors

Typical stepper motor controller for variable reluctance are variations on the scheme shown in Figure 3.1:

Figure 3.1

In Figure 3.1, boxes are used to represent switches, a control unit, not shown, is responsible for providing control signals to open and close switches at the appropriate times, to motor rotation. In many cases, the control unit is a computer or programmable interface controller, with software directly generating the outputs needed to control the switches, but in other cases, additional control circuitry is introduced, sometimes for free!

motor windings, solenoids and similar devices are all inductive loads. As such, the current through the motor winding can not be turned on or off instantly tension without involving infinite! When the switch controlling a motor winding is closed, allowing current to flow, this is the result of an increase slow progress. When the switch controlling a motor winding is opened, the result of this is a peak voltage that can seriously damage the switch unless careful to treat them appropriately.

There are two basic ways to deal with this spike. One is to bridge the motor winding a diode, and the other is to bridge the motor winding with a capacitor. Figure 3.2 illustrates the two approaches:

Figure 3.2

The diode shown in Figure 3.2 should be able to conduct the full current through the motor winding, but the behavior will only briefly each time the switch is off, as the current through winding decays. If diodes relatively slow as the common family 1N400X are used together with a fast switch, can be to add a small capacitor in parallel with the diode.

The capacitor shown in Figure 3.2 pose a more complex design! When the switch is closed, the capacitor discharges through the passage to the ground and the switch must be able to handle this peak discharge current short. A resistor in series with the capacitor or in series with the power supply will limit this current. When the switch is opened, the stored energy in the motor winding will charge the capacitor to a voltage significantly above the supply voltage and the switch must be able to stand the tension. To correct for the size of the capacitor, we equate the two formulas for the energy stored in a resonant circuit:

C P = V2 / 2

P = I2 L / 2

Where:

P – stored energy, in seconds or watt coulomb volt

C – capacity, farad

V – voltage across capacitor

L – inductance of motor winding, in henrys

I – current through the motor winding

Solving for the minimum size of capacitor required to prevent overvoltage on the switch is quite simple:

C> L I2 / (Vb – VS) 2

Where:

Vb – the breakdown voltage of the switch

VS – supply voltage

The variable reluctance motors have variable inductance which depends on the angle of the well. Therefore worst-case design should be used to select the capacitor. In addition, the motor inductances are often poorly documented, if at all.

The capacitor and motor winding, in combination, form a resonant circuit. If the control system drives the motor at frequencies near the resonant frequency of this circuit, the motor current through the motor windings and therefore the torque applied by the motor will be very different from that pair steady state at nominal operating voltage! The resonant frequency is:

f = 1 / (2 (LC) 0.5)

Again, the frequency of electrical resonance for a variable reluctance motor shaft angle depend! When a variable reluctance motors is operated with the pulses exciting near resonance, the oscillating current in the windings will result in a magnetic field goes to zero at twice the resonant frequency, and this can severely reduce the available torque!

Unipolar Permanent Magnet and Hybrid Motors

 

typical controllers for stepper motors are unipolar variations on the scheme shown in Figure 3.3:

Figure 3.3

In Figure 3.3, as in Figure 3.1, boxes are used to represent switches, a control unit, not shown, is responsible for providing control signals to open and close the switch the appropriate times to run the engines. The unit control is usually a computer or programmable interface controller, the software directly generating the outputs needed to control the switches.

How to drive circuits for variable reluctance motors, we face the inductive kick produced when each of these switches is turned off. Again, we shunt the inductive kick using diodes, but now, four diodes are required, as shown in Figure 3.4:

Figure 3.4

Additional diodes are needed because the motor winding is not two independent inductors, is a single center-tapped inductor with the center tap to a fixed voltage. This acts as an auto! When one end of the motor winding is pulled down, the other end will fly high, and vice versa. When a breaker opens, the inductive kickback guide this end of the motor winding to the positive pole, which is set by the diode. Side opposite will fly down, and if it was floating to the power supply at the moment it falls below ground, reversing the voltage across the switch to this end. Some switches are immune from such reversals, but others may be seriously damaged.

A capacitor can also be used to limit the backlash voltage, as shown in Figure 3.5:

Figure 3.5

The rules for sizing of the capacitor shown in Figure 3.5 are the same standards for the design of the condenser shown in Figure 3.2, but the effect of resonance is very different! With a permanent magnet motor, if the capacitor is driven or near the resonant frequency, the couple will rise to as much as twice the torque at low speed! The resulting torque against speed curve can be very complex, as shown in Figure 3.6:

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.6 shows a peak torque in the frequency of electrical resonance, and a valley at mechanical resonance frequency. If the frequency of electrical resonance is correctly positioned above the speed was cut-off for the motor driver uses a diode-based the effect can be a significant increase in effective cutting speed.

The mechanical resonance frequency depends on the couple, so if the mechanical resonance frequency is anywhere near the electrical resonance will be shifted from the electrical resonance! Furthermore, the width of the mechanical resonance depends on the slope local torque curve against the speed, if the couple down with the speed, mechanical resonance will be sharper, but if the couple up with the speed, will broader or even split into multiple resonant frequencies.

The variable reluctance pole practices and Drivers

In the circuits above, the details of the switches needed were deliberately ignored. Any switching technology, circuit breakers for power MOSFETs work! Figure 3.7 provides some suggestions for implementing each option, with a motor winding and protection diode is included for orientation:

Figure 3.7

Each of the options shown in figure 3.7 is compatible with a TTL input. The 5 volt power supply used for logic, including 7407 driver open-collector used in the figure should be well regulated. The engine power, typically between 5 and 24 volts, requires only minimal regulation. It is worth noting These power switching circuits are suitable for driving valves, DC motors and other inductive loads as well as for driving stepper motors.

The SK3180 transistor shown in Figure 3.7 is a Darlington power with a current gain greater than 1000, then, the 10 milliamps flowing through resistance from 470 ohms bias is more than sufficient to allow the transistor to switch a few amperes of current through the motor winding. 7407 The buffer used to drive the Darlington can be replaced with any chip high-voltage open collector can sink at least 10mA. Where the transistor fails, the driver is high-voltage open collector to protect the rest of the logic circuitry from the power of the engine.

The IRC IRL540 shown in Figure 3.7 is a field of power transistors effect. This can handle currents up to about 20 amperes, and divides non-destructive at 100 volts, therefore, this chip can absorb inductive spikes without protection diodes if it is attached to a large enough heat sink. This transistor has a switching time much faster, so the protection diodes must be relatively fast or bypassed by small capacitors. This is especially important with the diodes used to protect the transistor against prejudice contrary! Where the transistor fails, the zener diode and resistance of 100 ohms protect TTL circuits. The 100 Ohm resistor also acts to cool off 'time switching transistor.

For applications where each motor winding draws under 500 milliamps, the family of arrays darlington ULN200x Allegro Microsystems, available from National Semiconductor as DS200x and Darlington as the Motorola MC1413 multiple arrays drive the motor windings or other inductive loads directly from the logic inputs. Figure 3.8 shows the pinout of the chip widely available ULN2003, an array of 7 darlington transistors with TTL compatible inputs:

Figure 3.8

The basic resistance on every transistors darlington bipolar output is coupled with standard TTL. Each darlington NPN is connected with its emitter connected to pin 8, regarded as a ground pin, Each transistor in this package is protected by two diodes, a short-circuit the emitter to the collector, protection against reverse voltages across the transistor and a collector that connects to pin 9; if pin 9 is connected to the positive power of the engine, This diode protects the transistor against inductive spikes.

The chip is essentially the ULN2803 same chip ULN2003 described above, except that it is in a 18-pin package, and contains 8 Darlingtons, a chip that can be used to drive a pair of common single core permanent magnet or variable reluctance motors.

Engines of drawing 600 milliamps per winding, the driver quad UDN2547B power by Allegro Microsystems operate all four windings of common unipolar stepper motors. For motors drawing under 300 milliamps per winding, Texas Instruments SN7541, 7542 and 7543 drivers double power are a good choice, both of these alternatives include a logic with power drivers.

The motors and bipolar H-Bridges

Things are more complex for bipolar stepper motors with permanent magnet because these valves do not center on their windings. Therefore, to reverse the direction of the field produced by a motor winding, we need to reverse the current through the winding. We could use a double pole double throw electromechanical switch to do this, the electronic equivalent of such an option is called H-bridge and is outlined in

Figure 3.9

As with the unipolar drive circuits discussed above, the switches used for the H-bridge must be protected from voltage spikes caused by switching off a motor winding. This is usually done with diodes as shown in Figure 3.9.

It is worth noting that H-bridge are applicable not only to control bipolar stepper motors, but also control of DC motors, solenoids, push-pull (those with piston permanent magnet) and many other applications.

With 4 switches, base H-bridge has 16 operating modes possible, including 7 out of the short supply! The modes are of interest:

Forward mode, switches A and D closed.

Reverse mode, switch B and C locked.

These are the normal operating mode, allowing current to flow from the network, through the motor winding and then ground. Figure 3.10 illustrates forward mode:

Figure 3.10

Fast decay mode or coasting mode, all switches open.

Each flow of current through the motor winding must work against the full supply voltage plus two diode drops, so the current will decay quickly. This mode provides dynamic braking effect little or nothing on the motor rotor so that the rotor coast freely if all motor windings are powered in this mode. Figure 3.11 shows the 'current flow immediately after switching from running conducting a rapid decay mode.

Figure 3.11

decay modes slow or dynamic braking mode.

In this mode, current can recirculate through the motor winding with minimal resistance. Therefore, if current flows in a motor winding, when such a mode is entered, the current decay slowly, and the engine rotor turns, it induces a current that will act as a drag on the rotor. Figure 3.12 illustrates one of many useful ways to slow decay, with D switch is closed, if the winding engine has recently been on the implementing rules, the state of switch B may be open or closed:

Figure 3.12

Most H-bridges are designed so that the logic necessary to avoid a short circuit is included at a very low level in the drawing. Figure 3.13 illustrates what is probably the Best accommodation:

Figure 3.13

Here, the operating mode provides the following:

ABCD XY Mode

2000 0000 rapid decay

01 1001 onwards

10 0110 reverse

11 0101 slow decay

The advantage this provision is that all modes of operation profits are retained and are encoded with a minimum number of bits, the second is important when using a microcontroller or a computer system to drive the H-bridge Because many Such systems have only limited numbers of available bits to parallel output. Unfortunately, some of the H-bridge chip market have a simple control scheme.

Bipolar drive circuits practices

There are a number H-bridge driver integrated market, but is still useful to look at the implementations of discrete components for the understanding of how an H-bridge. Antonio Raposo (ajr@cybill.inesc.pt) suggested the H-bridge circuit shown in Figure 3.14;

Figure 3.14

The X and Y inputs to this circuit can be driven by collector TTL outputs open circuit as in the Darlington-based unipolar drive in Figure 3.7. The motor winding is energized if exactly one of the inputs X and Y is high and exactly one of them is low. If both are low, both pull-down transistors will be off. If both are high, both pull-up transistors will be off. Consequently, this Simple circuit provides motor in dynamic braking mode in both 11:00 states, and provides a way of inertia.

The circuit in Figure 3.14 consists two equal halves, each of which can be correctly described as a push-pull driver. The term half H-bridge is sometimes applied to the circuits! It is also worth noting that half of H-bridge circuit is quite similar to the circuit output units used in TTL logic. In fact, TTL line driver tri-state, as 74LS125A 74LS244 and can be used as a means of H-bridges small loads, as shown in Figure 3.15:

Figure 3.15

This circuit is effective for driving with engines up to about 50 ohms per winding at voltages up to about 4.5 volts to 5 volts using. Each tri-state buffer in LS244 can sink about twice the current that can source and resistance internal buffer is sufficient, purchasing power, to divide evenly between the current drivers that run in parallel. This engine allows all states the profits earned by the driver in Figure 3.13, but these were not coded as efficiently:

XYE Mode

– A rapid decay

000 slow decay

010 forward

100 reverse

110 slow decay

The second dynamic braking mode, XYE = 110 gives a slightly weaker than the initial energy due to the fact that the drivers can sink more LS244 current than they can source.

The Microchip (formerly Telcom Semiconductor) TC4467 Quad CMOS driver is another example of a general purpose driver that can be used as 4 independent half H-bridge. Unlike the previous drivers, the data sheet for this driver also suggests using it for motor control applications with supply voltages up to 18 volts and up to 250 milliamps for motor winding.

One problem with commercially available step motor control chip is that many of them have relatively short market life. For example, the Seagate IPxMxx series of dual H-bridge chip (IP1M10 through IP3M12) were very well thought out, but unfortunately, it seems Seagate has done just that when they have used stepper motors for head positioning in hard disk Seagate. The TA7279 Toshiba dual H-bridge driver would be another one excellent choice for engines below 1 amp, but again, seems to have been made for internal use only.

The SGS Thompson (and others) L293 dual H-bridge is a competitor to close above the chip, but unlike them, does not include protection diodes. The L293D chip, introduced later, is pin compatible and includes these diodes. If the earlier L293 is present, each winding of the motor must be set through a bridge rectifier (1N4001 equivalent). The use of external diodes allows series resistance to be put in the path of recirculation current to accelerate the decay of current in a coil when the engine is off, which may be desirable in some applications. The family L293 offers an excellent choice for driving small stepper establishment of a bipolar amplifier for motor winding up to 36 volts. Figure 3.16 shows the pin common to L293B L293D and chips:

Figure 3.16

This chip can be seen as a means four independent H-bridge has allowed couples or two full H-bridge. This is a package of power DIP with pins 4, 5, 12 and 13 to conduct heat to the PC card or an external heat sink.

The SGS Thompson (and others) L298 dual H-bridge is quite similar to the above, but can handle up to 2 Amps per channel and is packaged as a component of power As with the LS244, it is safe to connect the two H bridges in the package in a 4-L298 H-bridge amps (this chip card technology provides specific advice on how to do this). One caveat is that they can affect the L298, this chip switch very fast, fast enough common protection diodes (equivalent 1N400X) do not work. In contrast, use a diode as the BYV27. National Semiconductor LMD18200 H-bridge is another good example, it handles up to 3 amps and has full protection diodes.

While integrated H-bridge are not available for very high currents or very high voltages, there are well-designed components on the market to simplify the construction of H-bridge from discrete switches. For example, International Rectifier sells a line of half H-bridge drivers, two of these chips 4 MOSFET switching transistor is sufficient to build a bridge-H. The IR2101, IR2102 and IR2103 are basically half H-bridge driver. Each of these chips has two logic inputs directly control the two transistors of switching from one leg of an H-bridge. The IR2104 and IR2111 is similar logic output-side Control Switch H-bridge, but they also include input logic-side, in some applications, may reduce the need an external logic. In particular, the 2104 includes an enable input, so that 4 chips in 2104 and 8 switching transistor may be substituted for L293, without further logic.

Datasheet Microchip (formerly Telcom Semiconductor) TC4467 family of CMOS quad drivers includes information on how to use the driver in this family to drive the power MOSFET H-bridge performs up to 15 volts.

A number of chip makers to make complex H-bridge including current limiting circuits, which are the subject of the next paragraph. It 'also interesting to note that there are a number of drivers to bridge three phases of the market, suitable for driving Y or delta configured 3-phase permanent magnet stepper. Few such engines are available, and these chips were not developed with stepper in mind. However, TA7288P Toshiba, GL7438, the TA8400 and TA8405 are clean designs, and these two chips, with one half of 6 bridges ignored, it will clean a 5-10 pitch control clearance for each motor revolution.

 

About the Author

Assistant professor in lord venkateswara engineering college.I am doing phd in sathyabama university, Tamil Nadu,India.

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Berkeley: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2 $14.52 Berkeley: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2

Beethoven: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2 $17.83 Beethoven: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2

Stanford: Symphonies Nos. 2 & 5 $9.32 Stanford: Symphonies Nos. 2 & 5

Sinding: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2 $8.12 Sinding: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2

Mozart: Piano Concertos Nos. 11-13 $15.21 Mozart: Piano Concertos Nos. 11-13

Le Carre De Nos Amours $20.28 Le Carre De Nos Amours

Dvorak: Symphonies Nos. 6-9 (Import) $17.39 Dvorak: Symphonies Nos. 6-9 (Import)

Nos Vemos En Los Bares $13.36 Nos Vemos En Los Bares

Sibelius: Symphonies Nos. 6 & 7 $9.37 Sibelius: Symphonies Nos. 6 & 7

Schumann: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2 $15.73 Schumann: Symphonies Nos. 1 & 2

Mozart: Serenades Nos. 7 & 8 $8.01 Mozart: Serenades Nos. 7 & 8

Schubert: Masses Nos. 2 & 6 $14.41 Schubert: Masses Nos. 2 & 6

Beethoven: Symphonies Nos. 5 & 6 $17.83 Beethoven: Symphonies Nos. 5 & 6

Handel: Harpsichord Suites Nos. 6-8 $9.41 Handel: Harpsichord Suites Nos. 6-8

Beethoven: Piano Sonatas Nos. 5-8 $17.43 Beethoven: Piano Sonatas Nos. 5-8

Schumann: String Quartets Nos. 1-3 $9.39 Schumann: String Quartets Nos. 1-3

Fuchs: Serenades Nos. 1 & 2 $9.35 Fuchs: Serenades Nos. 1 & 2

Bach: Overtures (Suites) Nos. 1-4 $9.41 Bach: Overtures (Suites) Nos. 1-4

Zimmermann: String Quartets Nos. 1-3 $9.29 Zimmermann: String Quartets Nos. 1-3

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